"अस्ट्रिया" का संशोधनहरू बिचको अन्तर

विकिपिडिया, एक स्वतन्त्र विश्वकोशबाट
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कुनै सम्पादन सारांश छैन
कुनै सम्पादन सारांश छैन
पङ्क्ति १: पङ्क्ति १:
{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Country|
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fullcountryname= Republik Österreich<br>अष्ट्रिया गणराज्य |
{{Infobox Country|maxwidth=250px|width=250px
image_flag= Flag of Austria.svg |
| native_name = {{lang|de|''Republik Österreich''}}
image_coa= Austria Bundesadler.svg |
| local_name = Republik Österreich
image_location= Europe location AUT.png |
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Austria
nationalsong= ''Land der Berge, Land am Strome'' <br/> ''हिमालहरुको देश, नदी छेउको देश्'' |
| common_name = Austria
nationalflower= n/a |
| image_flag = Flag of Austria.svg
nationalanimal= n/a |
| image_coat = Austria Bundesadler.svg
officiallanguages= जर्मन|
|image_map = Location Austria EU Europe.png
populationtotal= ८,१५०,८३५ <small>(सन् २००० तिर)</small> |
|map_caption = {{map_caption|location_color=dark green|region=[[Europe]]|region_color=dark grey|subregion=the [[European Union]]|subregion_color=light green|legend=Location Austria EU Europe.png}}
populationrank= ८६औं |
| national_motto =
populationdensity= ९७ |
| national_anthem = {{lang|de|''[[Land der Berge, Land am Strome]]''}}{{spaces|2}}<small>([[German language|German]]) <br />''Land of Mountains, Land on the River''</small>
countrycapital= [[भीन]] |
| official_languages = [[German language|German]] <br /> locally also [[Hungarian Language|Hungarian]], [[Slovenian Language|Slovenian]] and [[Croatian Language|Croatian]]
countrylargestcity= भीन |
| capital = [[Vienna]]
areatotal= ८३,८५८ किमि<sup>२</sup> |
|latd=48 |latm=12 |latNS=N |longd=16 |longm=21 |longEW=E
arearank= ११२औं |
| largest_city = capital
areawater= १.३ |
| government_type = [[Federal republic|Federal]] [[Parliamentary republic]]
areawaterpercent= n/a |
| leader_title1 = [[President of Austria|President]]
establishedin= [[जुलाई]] २७, [[१९५५]] |
| leader_name1 = [[Heinz Fischer]]
leadertitlename= [[राष्ट्रपति]]: [[हाइन्च फिशर]] |
| leader_title2 = [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]]
currency= [[युरो]] |
| leader_name2 = [[Alfred Gusenbauer]]
utcoffset= +१ |
| sovereignty_type = [[Austrian State Treaty|Independence]]
dialingcode= +४३ |
| established_event1 = [[Austrian State Treaty]] in force
internettld=.at
| established_date1 = <br />[[July 27]] [[1955]]
| established_event2 = {{nowrap|[[Declaration of Neutrality]]}}
| established_date2 = [[October 26]] [[1955]] (before: [[Austrian Empire]]: 1804, [[First Austrian Republic]]: 1918)
| accessionEUdate = [[January 1]], [[1995]]
| area_km2 = 83,872
| area_rank = 115th
| area_magnitude = 1 E10
| percent_water = 1.7
| area_sq_mi = 32383 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| population_estimate = 8,316,487
| population_estimate_year = 2007
| population_estimate_rank = 93rd
| population_density_km2 = 99
| population_density_rank = 99th
| population_density_sq_mi = 257 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| population_census = 8,032,926
| population_census_year = 2001
| GDP_PPP = $279.5 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]]
| GDP_PPP_year = 2006
| GDP_PPP_rank = 34th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $36,000
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 8th
| Gini = 29.1
| Gini_year = 2000
|Gini_category = <font color="#009900">low</font>
| GDP_nominal = $307.07 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]]
| GDP_nominal_rank = 23rd
| GDP_nominal_year = 2005
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $37,117
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 12th
| HDI_year = 2005
| HDI = {{increase}} 0.948
| HDI_rank = 15th
|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>
| FSI = 26
| FSI_year = 2007
| FSI_rank = 166th
|FSI_category = <font color="#009900">Sustainable</font>
| currency = [[euro]] ([[Euro sign|€]]) ²
| currency_code = EUR
| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset = +1
| time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| demonym = [[Austrians|Austrian]]
| cctld = [[.at]] ³
| calling_code = 43
| footnote1 = [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] are officially recognised regional languages and [[Austrian Sign Language]] is a protected minority language throughout the country.
| footnote2 = Before 1999: Austrian [[Schilling]].
| footnote3 = The [[.eu]] domain is also used, as it is shared with other [[European Union]] member states.
}}
}}
{{FixHTML|end}}
'''अष्ट्रिया''' ([[जर्मन भाषा|जर्मन]]: '''Österreich''') [[मध्य युरोप]]को एक देश हो । यसका वरिपरि [[जर्मनी]], [[चेक गणराज्य]], [[स्लोभाकिया]], [[हङ्गेरी]], [[स्लोभेनिया]], [[इटाली]], [[स्विजरल्याण्ड]], र [[लिन्चेस्टाइन]] हरू छन। यसलाई आधिकारिक रुपमा "अष्ट्रिया गणराज्य" भनिन्छ । यो [[१९९५]] देखि [[युरोपेली सङ्घ]]को सदस्य राष्ट्र हो । अष्ट्रियाको राजधानी भिन हो । भिनलाई अङ्ग्रेजीमा भिएना भन्छन्। हाँ नौ सङ्घिय राज्यहरू छन्: फोरार्लबेर्ग, टिरोल, साल्ट्सबेर्ग, केर्नटेन, स्टायरमार्क, माथिल्लो अष्ट्रिया, तल्लो अष्ट्रिया, भिन र बुरगेनलान्ड । जर्मन भाषामा अष्ट्रियालाई अस्टरराइश भनिन्छ । अष्ट्रिया [[भुल्फगाङ आमादेउस मोट्सार्ट]] र [[योहान स्ट्राउस]] को जन्मस्थान हो, [[सिग्मुण्ड फ्रोइड]] र [[लुड्भिग भान बेटहोभन]] जस्ता अरू धेरै प्रशिद्ध व्यक्तिहरू अष्ट्रियामा बसोबास गर्दथे ।
'''Austria''' ({{lang-de|Österreich}}) ({{Audio|Österreich.ogg|Österreich}}), officially the '''Republic of Austria''' ({{lang-de|Republik Österreich}}) ({{Audio|Republik Österreich.ogg|Republik Österreich}}), is a [[landlocked]] country in [[Central Europe]].
It borders both [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]] to the north, [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]] to the east, [[Slovenia]] and [[Italy]] to the south, and [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]] to the west. The [[capital]] is the city of [[Vienna]] on the [[Danube River]].<ref>CIA map 1</ref>


The origins of modern Austria date back to the ninth century, when the territory of Upper and Lower Austria became increasingly populated. The name "Ostarrichi" is first documented in an official document from 996. Since then this word has developed into the ''Österreich''.<ref name="brook 4">Brook-Shepherd 4</ref>
अष्ट्रियाका प्रशिद्ध व्यक्तिहरू:


Austria is a [[parliamentary government|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy]] comprising nine federal states<ref>Lonnie Johnson 17</ref> and is one of six European countries that have declared [[neutral country|permanent neutrality]]<ref name="johnson neutral">Lonnie Johnson 155–156</ref> and one of the few countries that includes the concept of everlasting neutrality in its [[constitution]]. Austria has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since 1955<ref>Jelavich 267</ref> and joined the [[European Union]] in 1995.<ref>CIA par. 1</ref>
[[हेर्मन मायर]]<br>
[[आर्नोल्ड श्वार्ट्सनेगर]]<br>
[[फाल्को]]
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==Etymology==
The [[German language|German]] name {{lang|de|''Österreich''}} is derived from [[Old High German|Old German]] {{lang|goh|''[[Ostarrîchi]]''}} "East Kingdom".<ref name="meaningofname">{{cite web |first=Gwillim |last=Law |url=http://www.statoids.com/uat.html |title=States of Austria |publisher=Statoids |date=[[2006-01-09]] |accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref> The name was Latinized as "{{lang|la|[[wikt:Austria|Austria]]}}", thus it has no direct etymological connection with the name of [[Australia]], which derives from Latin ''Australis'' meaning ''The South'' (however, both words ultimately derive from Proto-Indo-European ''*aust-'' "dawn"). {{lang|de|''[[Reich]]''}} can also mean "empire," and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]]/[[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], although not in the context of the modern Republic of {{lang|de|''Österreich''}}. The term probably originates in a [[vernacular]] translation of the [[Medieval Latin]] name for the region: {{lang|la|''Marchia orientalis''}}, which translates as "eastern marches" or "eastern borderland", as it was situated at the eastern edge of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], that was also mirrored in the name ''[[Ostmark]]'', for a short period applied after the ''[[Anschluss]]'' to [[Germany]].
However, [[Friedrich Heer]], one the most important Austrian historians in the 20th century, stated in his book ''Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität'' (The Struggle Over Austrian Identity), that the Germanic form ''ostarrîchi'' was not a translation of the Latin word, but both resulted from a much older term originating in the [[Celtic languages]] of ancient Austria: More than 2,500 years ago, the major part of the actual country was called ''Norig'' by the Celtic population ([[Hallstatt culture]]); ''No-'' or ''Nor-'' meant ''East'' or ''Eastern'', whereas ''Rig'' is the related to the modern German ''Reich''; realm (among other things). Accordingly, ''Norig'' would essentially mean ''ostarrîchi'' and ''Österreich'', thus ''Austria''. The Celtic name was eventually Latinized to ''noricum'', when the Romans conquered and Romanized the country that later became Austria. The name of ''Noricum'' was then used to designate the Roman province.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

The current official designation is the ''Republic of Austria'' ({{lang|de|Republik Österreich}}).<ref name="cia government">[[CIA]] § Government</ref> It was originally known after the fall of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] from 1918 as the ''Republic of [[German Austria]]'' ({{lang|de|Republik Deutschösterreich}}) , but the state was forced to change its name to "Republic of [[Austria]]" in 1919 by the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]]. The name was changed again during the [[Austro-fascist]] regime (1934–1938) , into ''Federal State of Austria'' ({{lang|de|Bundesstaat Österreich}}) , but restored after regaining independence and the birth of the Second Austrian Republic (1955–present).

During the period of monarchy, Austria was known as the ''Austrian Empire'' ({{lang|de|Kaisertum Österreich}}) ; however no official designation existed since the empire was strongly multiethnic. After the [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867]], the empire became known as ''[[Austria-Hungary]]'' reflecting the [[dual monarchy]] character.<!--

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==History==
{{main|History of Austria}}
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===Prehistory and the Middle Ages===
[[Image:Wappen röm.kaiser.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Coats of arms of the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] Emperor]]
Settled in prehistoric times,<ref name="johnson 17">Lonnie Johnson 17</ref> the [[central Europe]]an land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various [[Celt]]ic tribes. The Celtic kingdom of [[Noricum]] was claimed by the [[Roman Empire]] and made a province. After the fall of the Roman Empire, of which most of Austria was part (all parts south of the Danube), the area was invaded by Bavarians, Slavs and [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]].<ref name="johnson 19"/> [[Charlemagne]] conquered the area in 788 and encouraged colonization and Christianity.<ref name="johnson 19">Johnson 19</ref> As part of [[Eastern Francia]], the core areas that now encompass Austria were bequeathed to the house of [[Babenberg]]. The area was known as the ''[[March of Austria|marchia Orientalis]]'' and was given to [[Leopold I of Austria (Babenberg)|Leopold of Babenberg]] in 976.<ref name="johnson 20">Johnson 20–21</ref>

The first record showing the name Austria is from 996 where it is written as ''[[Ostarrîchi]]'', referring to the territory of the Babenberg March.<ref name="johnson 20"/> The term [[Ostmark]] is not historically ascertained and appears to be a translation of ''marchia orientalis'' that came up only much later.

The following centuries were characterized by the settlement of the country. In 1156 the [[Privilegium Minus]] elevated Austria to the status of a duchy. In 1192, the Babenbergs also acquired the Duchy of [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]].

With the death of [[Frederick II of Austria|Frederick II]] in 1246, the line of the Babenbergers went extinct.<ref name="johnson 21">Johnson 21</ref> [[Otakar II of Bohemia]] effectively controlled the duchies of Austria, Styria and [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] after that.<ref name="johnson 21"/> His reign came to an end with his defeat at Dürnkrut at the hand of [[Rudolf I of Germany]] in 1278.<ref>Lonnie Johnson 23</ref> Thereafter, until World War I, Austria's history was largely that of its ruling dynasty, the [[Habsburgs]].

===Rise of The Habsburgs===
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the [[Habsburg Monarchy|Habsburgs]] began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria. In 1438, Duke [[Albert V of Austria]] was chosen as the successor to his father-in-law, [[Emperor Sigismund]]. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year, from then on, every emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was a Habsburg, with only one exception.

The Habsburgs began also to accumulate lands far from the Hereditary Lands. In 1477, [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Maximilian]], only son of [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick III]], married the heiress Maria of [[Burgundy]], thus acquiring most of the [[Low Countries]] for the family.<ref name="johnson 25">Lonnie Johnson 25</ref><ref name="brook 11">Brook-Shepherd 11</ref> His son [[Philip I of Castile|Philip the Fair]] married the heiress of Castile and Aragon, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian, African, and New World appendages for the Habsburgs.<ref name="johnson 25"/><ref name="brook 11"/>

In 1526, following the [[Battle of Mohács]], Austrian rulers expanded their territories, bringing Bohemia and the part of Hungary not occupied by the Ottomans under their rule.<ref>Lonnie Johnson 26</ref> Ottoman expansion into Hungary led to frequent conflicts between the two powers, particularly evident in the so-called [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]] of 1593 to 1606.

===Austria as a European Power===
[[Image:CongressVienna.jpg|thumb|right|225px|''The Congress of Vienna'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Isabey]], 1819.]]
{{seealso|Congress of Vienna|Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867|Austria-Hungary}}
The long reign of [[Emperor Leopold I|Leopold I]] (1657–1705) saw the culmination of the Austrian conflict with the Turks. Following the successful defense of [[Battle of Vienna|Vienna]] in 1683,<ref>Lonnie Johnson 26–28</ref> a series of campaigns resulted in the return of all of Hungary to Austrian control by the [[Treaty of Carlowitz]] in 1699.
The later part of the reign of [[Emperor Charles VI]] (1711–1740) saw Austria relinquish many of these fairly impressive gains, largely due to Charles's apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg. Charles was willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of the [[Pragmatic Sanction]] that made his daughter [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] his heir. With the rise of [[Prussia]] the [[German dualism|Austrian–Prussian dualism]] began in Germany.
[[Image:Austria-Hungary map.svg|thumb|right|225px|Map of Austria-Hungary]]
Austria became engaged in the war with Revolutionary France, which lasted until 1797 and at the beginning proved unsuccessful for Austria. Defeats by Napoleon meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Just two years before the abolition of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806,<ref>Lonnie Johnson 34</ref> in 1804 the [[Austrian Empire|Empire of Austria]] was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the dual-monarchy [[Austria-Hungary]]. However, in 1814 Austria was part of the Allied forces invading France and conquering it. Following the Napoleonic wars Austria emerged from the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 as one of four of the continent's dominant powers (together with Russia, Prussia and defeated France). In 1815 the [[German Confederation]], ({{lang-de|Deutscher Bund}}) was founded under the presidency of Austria. Austria and Prussia were the leading powers of the [[German Confederation]]. Its central institution was the [[Bundesversammlung (German Confederation)|Bundesversammlung]] in [[Free City of Frankfurt|Frankfurt]]. Because of unsolved social, political and national conflicts some of the German inhabitants took part in the [[1848 revolution]] to create a unified Germany.<ref name="johnson 36">Johnson 36</ref> The [[Frankfurt Parliament]] in the [[St. Paul's Church]] elected the arch duke [[Johann of Habsburg]] as a [[Reichsverweser]], an administrator of the German Empire. For a new German empire would have been possible three options: a Greater Germany, ''[[Großdeutschland]]'', with the German-speaking territories of the Habsburg Empire; a Greater Austrian solution, ''[[Großösterreich]]'', the [[German Confederation]] with the whole Habsburgian territories; and a smaller German solution, ''[[Kleindeutsche Lösung|Kleindeutsche]]'', the [[German Confederation]] without Austria at all. As Austria was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to what would become the [[Unification of Germany|German Empire of 1848]] the parliament offered the crown to the Prussian King [[Friedrich Wilhelm IV]]. Austria grew out of Germany; Prussia grew in. In 1864 Austria and Prussia fought together against Denmark, to free the independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Austria and Prussia could not agree on a solution to the administration of Schleswig and Holstein, which led to the [[Austro-Prussian War]] of 1866. Austria, together with most of the other German states, was defeated by Prussia in the [[Battle of Königgrätz]] in [[Bohemia]].<ref name="johnson 36"/> Austria had to leave the [[German Confederation]] and subsequently no longer took part in German politics.<ref name="johnson 55">Lonnie Johnson 55</ref><ref>Schulze 233</ref> After 1871, it was one of two Empires: the German Empire to the north and Austria-Hungary to the south.

The [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867]], the ''Ausgleich'', provided for a dual sovereignty, the empire of Austria and the kingdom of [[Hungary]], under [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]], who ruled until his death on [[21 November]] [[1916]].<ref>Lonnie Johnson 59</ref> The Austrian-Hungarian rule of this diverse empire included various [[Slav]] groups such as [[Poles]], [[Ukrainians]], [[Czechoslovakia|Czechs]], [[Czechoslovakia|Slovaks]], [[Slovenes]], [[Serbs]] and [[Croats]], as well as large [[Italian people|Italian]] and [[Romania]]n communities. As a result, ruling Austria-Hungary became increasingly difficult in an age of emerging nationalist movements. Yet the central government tried its best to be accommodating in some respects; minorities were entitled to schools in their own language, for example.

===World War I and its aftermath===

The assassination of [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] in [[Sarajevo]] in 1914 by [[Gavrilo Princip]] (a member of the Serbian nationalist group the [[Black Hand]])<ref>Johnson 52–54</ref> was the immediate cause for the outbreak of World War I, leading to the downfall and the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. War left the country in political chaos and economic ruin, the Central Powers (being Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany and Turkey) having been defeated in 1918. The Empire was broken up - Austria, with most of the German-speaking parts became a [[republic]] (see [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]]) and the remaining subordinate territories became independent states. However, over 3 million German Austrians found themselves living outside of the Allied inspired borders of the Austrian Republic in the nations of [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Yugoslavia]], [[Hungary]] and [[Italy]]. A particular large German minority was found in the newly-established Czechoslovakia with the entire historic German populations of [[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]] and [[Austrian Silesia]] cut off from their motherland of Austria. Austria was also deprived of half of [[Tyrol]], which was awarded to Italy as a prize for entering the war on the Allied side.<ref>Brook-Shepherd 246</ref> Austria has sustained this loss to the present day and this had been a major source of friction with Italy until the 1980s. Today the situation in [[Province of Bolzano-Bozen|Alto Adige/South Tyrol]] is resolved, serving as a model for inter-ethnic and transnational cooperation in [[Europe]].

Between 1918 and 1919, Austria was officially known as the Republic of [[German Austria]] ({{lang|de|''Republik Deutschösterreich''}}). Many territories it claimed under its control included regions that were later assigned to neighboring nations. Not only did the [[Allies of World War I|Entente powers]] forbid German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name; it was therefore changed to the Republic of Austria.<ref>Brook-Shepherd 245</ref> The monarchy was dissolved in 1919 and a parliamentary democracy was set up under the constitution of [[10 November]] [[1920]].

In the autumn of 1922, Austria was granted an international loan supervised by the [[League of Nations]].<ref>Brook-Shepherd 257-8</ref> The purpose of the loan was to avert bankruptcy, stabilize the currency, and improve its general economic condition. With the granting of the loan, Austria passed from an independent state to the control exercised by the League of Nations. At the time, the real ruler of Austria became the League, through its commissioner in Vienna. The commissioner was a Dutchman not formally part of the Austrian government. Austria had fallen under an international [[receivership]], which had not been seen openly since [[Lord Croner]] became the financial adviser to the bankrupt [[Khedivial Government]] of Egypt a little less than half a century earlier.

===Austrofascism and the Third Reich===

{{seealso|Austrofascism|Austrian Civil War}}

The [[First Austrian Republic]], lasted until 1933 when Chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] dissolved parliament and established an autocratic regime tending towards Italian fascism, ([[Austrofascism]]) in order, partly, to check the power of Nazis who were still advocating union with [[Germany]].<ref name="johnson 104">Lonnie Johnson 104</ref><ref name="brook 269">Brook-Shepherd 269-70</ref>
The two big parties at this time —the Social Democrats and the Conservatives— had paramilitary armies, which fought each other.<ref>Brook-Shepherd 261</ref> The "Heimwehr" (later integrated into the "Vaterländische Front") , the paramilitary arm of the Conservative party supported Dollfuss' s Fascist regime; the "Republikanischer Schutzbund", was the military arm of the Social Democrats which was outlawed in 1933 but still existed underground - civil war was to break out.<ref name="johnson 104"/><ref name="brook 269"/><ref name="johnson 107">Johnson 107</ref>

After the [[Austrian Civil War]] in February 1934, several members of the Schutzbund were executed,<ref>Brook-Shepherd 283</ref> the Social Democratic party was outlawed and many of its members were imprisoned or emigrated.<ref name="johnson 107"/> In May of that year the Fascists introduced a new constitution ("[[Maiverfassung]]") which cemented Dollfuss's power but on [[25 July]] he was assassinated in a [[Nazi]] coup attempt.<ref>Lonnie Johnson 109</ref><ref>Brook-Shepherd 292</ref>

His successor [[Kurt Schuschnigg]], struggled to keep Austria independent (even a restoration of the Habsburgs was contemplated), but on [[12 March]] [[1938]] German troops occupied the country<ref name="johnson 112">Lonnie Johnson 112–3</ref> and established a plebiscite confirming union with Germany. [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] was himself a native of Austria who had lost Austrian citizenship in 1925. Hitler proclaimed the annexation (''[[Anschluss]]'') of Austria by Germany. Austria was incorporated into the [[Third Reich]] and ceased to exist as an independent state. The Nazis called Austria "[[Ostmark]]"<ref name="johnson 112"/> until 1942 when it was again renamed and called "Alpen-Donau-Reichsgaue." Some Austrians joined the [[Austrian resistance|resistance]], but many more joined the German armed forces (''[[Wehrmacht]]'').

Vienna fell on [[13 April]] [[1945]] during the Soviet [[Vienna Offensive]]. This was just before the total collapse of the Third Reich, the defeat of Nazi Germany, the fall of Berlin, and the [[End of World War II in Europe|end of the war]] in May. [[Karl Renner]] astutely set up a Provisional Government in [[Vienna]] in April with the tacit approval of the victorious Soviet forces,<ref name="johnson 135">Lonnie Johnson 135–6</ref> and declared Austria's secession from the Third Reich.

===After the defeat of Germany, Allied Occupation===

{{seealso|Allied-administered Austria}}

Much like Germany, Austria, too, was divided into a British, a French, a Soviet and an American Zone and governed by the [[Allied Commission for Austria]].<ref>Lonnie Johnson 137</ref> Largely owing to [[Karl Renner]]'s action on April 27th in setting up a Provisional Government, however, there was a subtle difference in the treatment of Austria by the Allies.<ref name="johnson 135"/> The Austrian Government was recognized and tolerated by the Four Powers. Austria, in general, was treated as though it had been originally invaded by Germany and liberated by the Allies.

Although the Eastern part of Austria, including the greater Vienna area, lay in the Soviet Zone, the capital itself was equally divided into four occupational zones. Outside of Vienna, however, travel across zone borders, in particular leaving or entering the Soviet zone, was difficult and time-consuming if possible at all. During the time of the [[Berlin Air Lift]], Soviet military pressure was increased further, but could be successfully overcome by skillful military, political and diplomatic influence on the part of the other Allies.

On [[15 May]] [[1955]] Austria regained full independence by concluding the [[Austrian State Treaty]] with the Four Occupying Powers. On [[26 October]] [[1955]] Austria was declared "permanently neutral" by act of Parliament, which it remains to this day.<ref name="johnson 153">Lonnie Johnson 153</ref>

===Recent history===

The political system of the Second Republic came to be characterized by the system of ''[[Proporz]]'', meaning that most posts of some political importance were split evenly between members of the Social Democrats (Labour Party) and the People's Party (Conservatives).<ref>Lonnie Johnson 139</ref>

Interest group representations with mandatory membership (e.g. for workers, businesspeople, farmers etc.) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so that hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus.<ref>Lonnie Johnson 165</ref> The Proporz and consensus systems largely held even during the years between 1966 and 1983, when there were non-coalition governments, but this era has now passed.

Austria today has five major political parties: The SPÖ (Labour Party) , the ÖVP (Conservatives) , the "Greens" (Environmental, social-liberal) and FPÖ/BZÖ (both right-wing, nationalist). SPÖ and ÖVP share about 75% of the parliamentary mandates, while the remaining 25% are divided between the other three parties.

Austria became a member of the [[European Union]] in 1995<ref>Brook-Shepherd 447,449</ref> and retained its constitutional neutrality, like some other EU members, such as Sweden. The major parties SPÖ and ÖVP have contrary opinions about the future status of Austria's military neutrality: While the SPÖ supports a neutral role in the EU (together with other neutral EU members like Sweden), the ÖVP argues for stronger integration into the EU's security policy; even a future NATO is not ruled out by some ÖVP politicians. Since the "permanent neutrality" forms part of the Austrian constitution, a two-thirds majority in the Austrian parliament would be needed for such a change in policy.

==Politics==
[[Image:Austria Parlament Athena.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Austrian Parliament in [[Vienna]]]]

{{main|Politics of Austria}}<!--Please add new information to relevant articles of the series-->

===Political system===
The [[Parliament of Austria]] is located in [[Vienna]], the nation's largest city and capital. Austria became a federal, [[parliamentary democracy|parliamentarian, democratic]] [[republic]] through the [[Federal Constitution (Austria)|Federal Constitution]] of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine [[States of Austria|states]] of the Federal Republic.<ref>Lonnie Johnson 17, 142</ref> The [[head of state#Parliamentary system|head of state]] is the [[President of Austria|Federal President]], who is directly elected by popular vote. The chairman of the [[Government of Austria|Federal Government]] is the [[Chancellor of Austria|Federal Chancellor]], who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by [[vote of no confidence]] in the lower chamber of parliament, the [[National Council of Austria|Nationalrat]].

The Parliament of Austria consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every five years by a general election in which every citizen over 16 years (since 2007) is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A recent extension of that term from four to five years will become effective after the next election. While there is a general threshold of 4 percent for all parties at federal elections (Nationalratswahlen) , there remains the possibility to gain a direct seat, or {{lang|de|''Direktmandat''}}, in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the [[Federal Council of Austria|Bundesrat]] has a limited right of [[veto]] (the Nationalrat can — in almost all cases — ultimately pass the respective bill by voting a second time. This is referred to as '''Beharrungsbeschluss'', lit. "vote of persistence"). A convention, called the {{lang|de|''Österreich -Konvent''}}<ref>[http://www.konvent.gv.at/ Willkommen beim Österreich Konvent<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> was convened in [[June 30]], [[2003]] to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. However, some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented.

===Recent political developments===
In February 2000 the conservative People's Party formed a coalition with the controversial nationalistic Freedom Party, headed by [[Jörg Haider]]. The (at that time) 14 other member states of the [[European Union]] - but not the EU itself - condemned Austria's new coalition and froze diplomatic contacts. These measures were commonly referred to as "sanctions" although they were more or less just motions of diplomatic unfriendliness. Given the controversy, Haider chose not to join the government, but he continued to wield influence from the sidelines. This was not, however, the first time that the Republic of Austria had displeased international opinion. In 1986, the population voted for [[Kurt Waldheim]] as president despite his revelation that he had been active in the [[Wehrmacht]] as an intelligence officer during World War II.

In September 2002, the coalition between the [[Austrian People's Party|People's Party]] and the [[Freedom Party of Austria|Freedom Party]] dissolved after a shake-up in the Freedom Party. In November 2002, the People's Party made large gains in general elections again. After a lot of coalition talks with other parties, the People's Party again formed a government with the [[Freedom Party of Austria|Freedom Party]] in February 2003 with [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] as Chancellor.

After general elections held in October 2006, the Social Democrats emerged as the largest party, whereas the People's Party lost about 8% in votes. Political realities prohibited any of the two major parties from forming a coalition with smaller parties. In January 2007 the People's Party and Social Democrats formed a [[Grand Coalition]] with the social democrat [[Alfred Gusenbauer]] as Chancellor.

===Foreign policy===
[[Image:Austrian embassy in London.JPG|150px|thumb|Embassy of Austria in [[London]]]]
{{main|Foreign relations of Austria}}
The 1955 [[Austrian State Treaty]] ended the occupation of Austria following World War II and recognized Austria as an independent and sovereign state. In October 1955, the [[Federal Assembly of Austria|Federal Assembly]] passed a constitutional law in which "Austria declares of her own free will her perpetual neutrality." The second section of this law stated that "in all future times Austria will not join any military alliances and will not permit the establishment of any foreign military bases on her territory." Since then, Austria has shaped its foreign policy on the basis of neutrality.

Austria began to reassess its definition of neutrality following the fall of the Soviet Union, granting overflight rights for the [[United Nations|UN]]-sanctioned action against [[Iraq]] in 1991, and, since 1995, contemplating participation in the [[European Union|EU's]] evolving security structure. Also in 1995, it joined the Partnership for Peace and subsequently participated in peacekeeping missions in Bosnia.

Austria attaches great importance to participation in the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] and other international economic organizations, and it has played an active role in the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE).

===Energy politics===
In 1972, the country began construction of a [[nuclear power|nuclear-powered]] electricity-generation station at [[Zwentendorf]] on the River [[Danube]], following a unanimous vote in parliament. However, in 1978, a [[referendum]] voted approximately 50.5% against nuclear power, 49.5% for,<ref>Lonnie Johnson 168–9</ref> and parliament subsequently unanimously passed a law forbidding the use of nuclear power to generate electricity.

Austria currently produces more than half of its electricity by [[hydropower]]. Together with other renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass powerplants, the electricity supply from renewable energy amounts to nearly 80% of total use in Austria. The rest is produced by [[gas]] and [[oil]] powerplants.

==Military==
[[Image:Bataillon de la garde autrichienne.jpg|thumb|right|Austrian Guard Company on parade - July 14th 2007, [[Champs Elysées]], [[Paris]].]]
{{main|Military of Austria}}
The manpower of the Austrian Armed Forces ("Bundesheer") mainly relies on [[conscription]]. All males who have reached the age of eighteen and are found fit get recruited for a six months long [[military service]], which can be postponed under some circumstances. [[Conscientious objector|Conscientious objection]] is legally possible and obliges to serve an institutionalized nine months [[Zivildienst|civilian service]] instead.
Only since 1998, women can volunteer to become professional soldiers.

The main sectors of the Bundesheer are Joint Forces (Streitkräfteführungskommando, SKFüKdo) which consist of Land Forces (Landstreitkräfte) , Air Forces (Luftstreitkräfte) , International Missions (Internationale Einsätze) , and Special Forces (Spezialeinsatzkräfte) ; next to Mission Support (Kommando Einsatzunterstützung; KdoEU) and Command Support (Kommando Führungsunterstützung; KdoFüU). In 2004, Austria expends about 0.9% of its GDP for defense. The Army currently has about 45,000 soldiers, of which about half are conscripts. As head of state, [[President of Austria|Austrian President]] (currently [[Heinz Fischer]]) is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the Bundesheer. In practical reality, however, command of the Austrian Armed Forces is almost exclusively exercised by the Minister of Defense, currently [[Norbert Darabos]].

With the end of the [[Cold War]], and more importantly the removal of the former heavily guarded "[[Iron Curtain]]" separating Austria and Hungary, the Austrian military have been assisting Austrian border guards in trying to prevent border crossings by illegal immigrants. This assistance came to an end when Hungary joined the EU Schengen area in 2008, for all intents and purposes abolishing "internal" border controls between treaty states. Some politicians have called for a prolongation of this mission, but the legality of this is heavily disputed. In accordance with the Austrian constitution, armed forces may only be deployed in a limited number of cases, mainly to defend the country and aid in cases of national emergencies, such as in the wake of natural disasters etc. They may generally not be used as auxiliary police forces.

Despite, or perhaps because of, its self-declared status of permanent neutrality, Austria has a long and proud tradition of engaging in UN-led peacekeeping and other humanitarian missions. The [[Austrian Forces Disaster Relief Unit]] (AFDRU) , in particular, an all-volunteer unit with close ties to civilian specialists (rescue dog handlers, etc) enjoys a reputation as a quick (standard deployment time is 10 hours) and efficient [[Search and rescue|SAR]] unit. Currently, larger contingents of Austrian forces are deployed in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Kosovo]] and, since 1974, on the [[Golan Heights]].

==States==
{{main|States of Austria}}
As a [[federal republic]], Austria is divided into [[States of Austria|nine states]] ({{lang-de|''Bundesländer''}}). These states are then divided into [[district]]s ({{lang|de|''[[Bezirke]]''}}) and cities ({{lang|de|''[[Statutarstadt|Statutarstädte]]''}}). Districts are subdivided into municipalities ({{lang|de|''Gemeinden''}}). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government.

{{Austria states}}

==Geography==
[[Image:Oesterreich topo.png|thumb|left|240px|Topography of Austria]]
{{main|Geography of Austria}}
Austria is a largely [[mountain]]ous country due to its location in the [[Alps]]. The [[Central Eastern Alps]], [[Northern Limestone Alps]] and [[Southern Limestone Alps]] are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84&nbsp;000&nbsp;km² or 32,000&nbsp;[[square mile|sq. mi]]) , only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 meters (1,640&nbsp;ft). The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country.

[[Image:Au-map.png|thumb|right|240px|Map of Austria]]
Austria can be divided into five areas. The biggest area are the [[Eastern Alps|Austrian Alps]], which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the [[Alps]] and the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] account for around 12% of its area. The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian [[granite]] [[plateau]], it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the [[Vienna basin]] comprises the remaining 4%.

==Climate==
The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate [[climate zone]] in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the [[Alps]] the [[alpine climate]] is the predominant one. In the East, in the [[Pannonian Plain]] and along the [[Danube|Danube valley]], the climate shows continental features with less rain than the alpine areas. Although Austria is cold in the winter, in the summer temperatures can be relatively warm reaching 20-35 degrees Celsius.

The six highest mountains in Austria are:
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
!width="150px"| Name !! Height ([[Metre|m]]) !! Height (ft) !!width="130px"| Range
|-
|align="left"| [[Großglockner]] || {{commas|3797}} || {{commas|12457}} ||align="center"| [[Hohe Tauern]]</tr>
|align="left"| [[Wildspitze]] || {{commas|3768}} || {{commas|12362}} ||align="center"| [[Ötztal Alps]]</tr>
|align="left"| [[Weißkugel]] || {{commas|3739}} || {{commas|12267}} ||align="center"| [[Ötztal Alps]]</tr>
|align="left"| [[Großvenediger]] || {{commas|3674}} || {{commas|12054}} ||align="center"| [[Hohe Tauern]]</tr>
|align="left"| [[Similaun]] || {{commas|3606}} || {{commas|11831}} ||align="center"| [[Ötztal Alps]]</tr>
|align="left"| [[Großes Wiesbachhorn]] || {{commas|3571}} || {{commas|11715}} ||align="center"| [[Hohe Tauern]]
|}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Austria}}
{{seealso|List of Austrian companies}}
[[Image:T-mobil center wien.jpg|thumb|Modern Vienna]]
Austria is one of the 10 richest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita, has a well-developed [[social market economy]], and a very high [[standard of living]]. Until the 1980s, many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised; in recent years, however, [[Privatization|privatisation]] has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. [[Labour movement]]s are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. Next to a highly-developed industry, international tourism is the most important part of the national economy.

[[Germany]] has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the [[German economy]]. But since Austria became a member state of the [[European Union]] it has gained closer ties to other [[European Union]] economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Growth in GDP accelerated in recent years and reached 3.3% in 2006.<ref>[http://www.oenb.at/isaweb/report.do?&lang=EN&report=7.7 Real GDP Growth – Expenditure Side], provided by the Austrian National Bank {{de icon}}</ref>

==Education==
{{main|Education in Austria}}
Responsibility for educational oversight in Austria lies partly at the Austrian [[states]] (Bundesländer), and partly with the federal government. Optional [[kindergarten]] education is provided for all children between the ages of three and six years. School attendance is [[Compulsory education|compulsory]] for nine years, i.e. usually to the age of fifteen. The [[Programme for International Student Assessment]], coordinated by the [[OECD]], currently ranks Austria's education as the 18th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average.[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/8/39700724.pdf]

[[Primary education]] lasts for four years. Alongside [[Germany]], [[secondary education]] includes two main types of schools based on a pupil's ability as determined by grades from the primary school: the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] for the more gifted children which normally leads to the [[Matura]] which is a requirement for access to universities and the [[Hauptschule]] which prepares pupils for vocational education but also for further education ([[HTL]] = institution of higher technical education; [[HAK]] = commercial academy; [[HBLA]] = institution of higher education for economic business; etc.), where you also get the [[Matura]].

The Austrian university system had been open to any student who passed the [[Matura]] examination until recently. A 2006 bill allowed the introduction of entrance exams for studies such as [[Medicine]]. Currently all EU students are charged a fee of about €370 per semester for all university studies. A recent [[OECD]] report criticized the Austrian education system for the low number of students attending universities and the overall low number of academics compared to other OECD countries.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Canaletto (I) 058.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A painting by [[Canaletto]] of [[Vienna]] during the first half of the eighteenth century.]]
{{main|Demographics of Austria}}
Austria's population estimate in October 2006 was 8,292,322. The population of the capital, [[Vienna]], exceeds 1.6 million (2.2 million with suburbs) , representing about a quarter of the country's population and is known for its vast cultural offerings and high standard of living.

In contrast to the capital, other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants: the second largest city [[Graz]] is home to 250,099 inhabitants, followed by [[Linz]] (188,968), [[Salzburg]] (150,000), and [[Innsbruck]] (117,346). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants.

German-speaking Austrians, by far the country's largest group, form roughly 90% of Austria's population. The Austrian federal states of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] and [[Styria (state)|Styria]] are home to a significant indigenous [[Carinthian Slovenes|Slovenian speaking minority]] with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of up to 50,000). In the east-most Bundesland, [[Burgenland]] (formerly part of the Hungarian half of [[Austria-Hungary]]) about 20,000 Austrian citizens speak [[Hungarian]] and 30,000 speak [[Croatian]]. The remaining [[number]] of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former [[Eastern Bloc|East Bloc]] nations. So-called [[foreign worker|guest workers]] ''(Gastarbeiter) '' and their descendants, as well as refugees from [[Yugoslav wars]] and other conflicts, also form an important [[minority group]] in Austria. Since 1994 the [[Romani people|Roma]]-[[Sinti]] (gypsies) are an officially recognized ethnic minority in Austria.

According to [[census]] information published by Statistik Austria for the year 2001 <ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.statistik.at/web_de/static/bevoelkerung_2001_nach_umgangssprache_staatsangehoerigkeit_und_geburtsland_022896.pdf {{lang|de|Statistik Austria, Die Bevölkerung nach Umgangssprache, Staatsangehörigkei und Geburtsland}}]|41.3&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} {{de icon}}</ref> there were a total of 710,926 foreign nationals living in Austria. Of these, 124,392 speak German as their mother tongue (presumably immigrants from Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, the Slovenes and also the South Tyrolian part of northern Italy.) The next largest populations of linguistic and ethnic groups are 240,863 foreign nationals from the former Yugoslavia (Serbian being the largest number of these at 135,376, followed by Croatian at 105,487); 123,417 Turkish nationals; 25,155 whose native tongue is English; 24,446 Albanian; 17,899 Polish; 14,699 Hungarian; 12,216 Romanian; 7,982 Arabs; 6,902 Slovenes (not including the autochthonous minority); 6,891 Slovaks; 6,707 Czech; 5,916 Persian; 5,677 Italian; 5,466 Russian; 5,213 French; 4,938 Chinese; 4,264 Spanish; 3,503 Bulgarian. The populations of the rest fall off sharply below 3,000.

The mother tongue of the population by prevalence, is German (88.6%) followed by Turkish (2.3%) , Serbian (2.2%) , Croatian (1.6%) , Hungarian (0.5%) and Bosnian (0.4%).<ref>{{PDFlink|[ftp://www.statistik.at/pub/neuerscheinungen/vzaustriaweb.pdf {{lang|de|Statistik Austria, Die Bevölkerung nach Umgangssprache, Staatsangehörigkei und Geburtsland}}, page 75. ]}} {{de icon}}</ref>

The official language, [[German language|German]], is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the [[country]], however, belong to [[Austro-Bavarian]] groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its western-most Bundesland, [[Vorarlberg]], which belongs to the group of [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for [[Austrian German]] with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany.

As of 2006, some of the Austrian states introduced standardised tests for new citizens, to assure their language ability, cultural knowledge and accordingly their ability to integrate into the Austrian society.<ref>[http://wien.at/verwaltung/personenwesen/staatsbuergerschaft/allgem.html Requirements to become an Austrian citizen], provided by the Viennese state government {{de icon}}</ref>

===Politics concerning ethnic groups ({{lang|de|''Volksgruppenpolitik''}})===
An estimated 13,000 to 40,000 [[Slovenes]] in the Austrian state of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] (the [[Carinthian Slovenes]]) as well as [[Croatians]] (around 30,000<ref>[http://www.croates.at/haupt/gesch_fr.htm HKDC Geschichte - Frame<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>) and [[Hungarians]] in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty ({{lang|de|''Staatsvertrag''}}) of 1955.<ref name="johnson 153"/> The Slovenes in the Austrian state of [[Styria (state)|Styria]] (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of [[July 27]] [[1955]] states otherwise.

The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene- and Croat-Austrians live alongside the Germanic population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. Many Carinthians are afraid of [[Slovenia]]n territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases show parts of Carinthia as Slovenian cultural territory. The current governor, [[Jörg Haider]], has made this fact a matter of public argument in autumn 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called "Windischen-Theorie"<ref>http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windischen-Theorie</ref> stating that the Slovenes can be split in two groups: actual Slovenes and ''Windische'' (a traditional German name for Slavs) , based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenes, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenes who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. The term ''Windische'' was applied to the latter group as a means of distinction. This theory was never generally accepted and fell out of use some decades ago.

==Religion==
{{main|Religion in Austria}}
[[Image:Tizian 066.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]], ''also '''Charles I of Spain''', [[Austrian Habsburg]]'' <br /> ruler and one of the major figures of the [[Counter-Reformation]].]]

At the end of the twentieth century, about 74% of Austria's population were registered as Roman Catholic,<ref name="Volkszählung">{{cite web | title=Census 2001: Population 2001 according to religious affiliation and nationality|url=http://www.statistik.at/web_de/static/bevoelkerung_2001_nach_religionsbekenntnis_und_staatsangehoerigkeit_022894.pdf|accessmonthday=December 17|accessyear=2007|language=German|publisher=Statistik Austria|format=PDF}}</ref> while about 5% considered themselves [[Protestant]]s.<ref name="Volkszählung"/> Both these numbers have been in decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicism, which has suffered an increasing number of seceders from the church.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Austrian Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income —about 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which might (have) act(ed) as an incentive to leave the church.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}

About 12% of the population declare that they have [[irreligion|no religion]].<ref name="Volkszählung"/> Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of [[Eastern Orthodox|Eastern Orthodox Church]]es and about 8,100 are [[Judaism|Jewish]].<ref name="Volkszählung"/> It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000 - was reduced to solely 4,000 to 5,000 after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The influx of [[Eastern Europe]]ans, especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from [[Turkey]] largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria — around 340,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities.<ref name="Volkszählung"/> [[Buddhism in Austria|Buddhism]], which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983 has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 [[census]]).{{fact|date=December 2007}}

According to the most recent [[Eurobarometer|Eurobarometer Poll]] 2005,<ref name="EUROBAROMETER">{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf
|title=Eurobarometer on Social Values, Science and technology 2005 - page 11
|accessdate=2007-05-05}}</ref>

* '''54%''' of Austrian citizens responded that <font color="#884400">''"they believe there is a God"''</font>.
* '''34%''' answered that <font color="#884400">''"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force"''</font>.
* '''8%''' answered that <font color="#884400">''"they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force"''</font>.

While northern and central Germany was the origin of the [[Reformation]], Austria (and Bavaria) was the heart of the [[Counter-Reformation]] in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the absolute monarchy of [[Habsburg]] imposed a strict regime to maintain Catholicism's power and influence among Austrians.<ref>Lonnie Johnson 28</ref><ref>Brook-Shepherd 16</ref> The [[Habsburg]]s viewed themselves as the vanguard of [[Roman Catholicism]] and all other confessions and religions were oppressed. In 1781, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Joseph II]] issued a Patent of Tolerance that allowed other Christian confessions a limited [[freedom of religion|freedom of worship]]. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right in the [[Ausgleich|Austro-Hungarian ''Ausgleich'']] in 1867 thus paying tribute to the fact that the monarchy was home of numerous religions beside Roman Catholicism such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian [[Orthodox Christians]] (Austria neighboured the [[Ottoman empire]] for centuries) , and both [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] and [[Lutheran]] [[Protestants]].

Austria continued to remain largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918, First Republic Catholic leaders such as [[Theodor Innitzer]] and [[Ignaz Seipel]] took leading positions within or close to Austria's government and increased their influence during the time of the [[Austrofascism]] —Catholicism was treated much like a [[state religion]] by [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and [[Kurt Schuschnigg]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans{{fact|date=January 2008}} in 1938 during the [[Anschluss]] of Austria into [[Germany]], Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of [[Nazism]] later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the [[Third Reich]]. After 1945, a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria, and religious influence on politics declined.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Austria}}
{{Austrians}}

===Music===
[[Image:Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart 1.jpg|left|thumb|140px|[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] (1756-1791).]]
Austria's past as a European power and its cultural environment have generated a broad contribution to various forms of art, most notably among them music. Austria has been the birthplace of many [[Music of Austria|famous composers]] such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Haydn|Joseph Haydn]], [[Franz Schubert]], [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Johann Strauss, Sr.]], [[Johann Strauss, Jr.]] and [[Gustav Mahler]] as well as members of the [[Second Viennese School]] such as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Anton Webern]] and [[Alban Berg]].

Vienna has long been especially an important center of musical innovation. Eighteenth and nineteenth century composers were drawn to the city due to the patronage of the Habsburgs, and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music. Vienna's status began its rise as a cultural center in the early 1500s, and was focused around instruments including the lute. [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] spent the better part of his life in Vienna.

Austria's current [[national anthem]] was chosen after [[World War II]] to replace the traditional Austrian anthem by Joseph Haydn. The composition, which was initially attributed to [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], was most likely not composed by Mozart himself.

Austria has also produced one notable jazz musician, keyboardist [[Josef Zawinul]] who helped pioneer electronic influences in jazz as well as being a notable composer in his own right. [[Falco (musician)|Falco]] was an internationally acclaimed [[Pop music|pop]] and [[Rock music|rock]] musician.

===Art and architecture===
{{seealso|List of Austrian artists and architects}}
[[Image:Upper belvedere.jpg|200px|right|thumb|The [[Belvedere (palace)|Belvedere Palace]], an example of [[Baroque]] architecture.]]

Among Austrian Artists and architects one can find painters [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Egon Schiele]] or [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], photographer [[Inge Morath]] or architect [[Otto Wagner]].

===Science, philosophy and economics===
{{seealso|Austrian School|List of Austrian scientists}}
[[Image:Sigmund Freud-loc.jpg|140px|thumb|left|[[Sigmund Freud]] in 1938]]
Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists with international reputations. Among them are [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[Victor Franz Hess]] and [[Christian Doppler]], prominent scientists in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, contributions by [[Lise Meitner]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]] and [[Wolfgang Pauli]] to nuclear research and quantum mechanics were key to these areas' development during the 1920s and 1930s. A present-day quantum physicist is [[Anton Zeilinger]], noted as the first scientist to demonstrate [[quantum teleportation]].

In addition to physicists, Austria was the birthplace of two of the greatest philosophers of the twentieth century, [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] and [[Karl Popper]]. In addition to them biologists [[Gregor Mendel]] and [[Konrad Lorenz]] as well as mathematician [[Kurt Gödel]] and engineers such as [[Ferdinand Porsche]] and [[Siegfried Marcus]] were Austrians.

A focus of Austrian science has always been medicine and psychology, starting in medieval times with [[Paracelsus]]. Eminent physicians like [[Theodore Billroth]], [[Clemens von Pirquet]], and [[Anton Eiselsberg|Anton von Eiselsberg]] have built upon the achievements of the 19th century [[Vienna School|Vienna School of Medicine]]. Austria was home to psychologists [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Alfred Adler]], [[Paul Watzlawick]] and [[Hans Asperger]] and psychiatrist [[Viktor Frankl]].

The [[Austrian School]] of Economics, which is prominent as one of the main competitive directions for economic theory, is related to Austrian economists [[Joseph Schumpeter]], [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], and [[Friedrich Hayek]].

Other noteworthy Austrian-born émigrés include the management thinker [[Peter Drucker]] and the 38th Governor of California, [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]].

===Literature===
{{seealso|List of Austrian writers|Austrian literature}}
Complementing its status as a land of artists and scientists, Austria has always been a country of poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists [[Arthur Schnitzler]], [[Stefan Zweig]], [[Thomas Bernhard]], [[Franz Kafka]], and [[Robert Musil]], of poets [[Georg Trakl]], [[Franz Werfel]], [[Franz Grillparzer]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], and [[Adalbert Stifter]], and of writer [[Karl Kraus]].

Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Nobel prize winner [[Elfriede Jelinek]] and writer [[Peter Handke]].

===Cuisine===
{{main|Cuisine of Austria}}
Austria's cuisine is derived from the cuisine of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. In addition to native regional traditions, it has been influenced above all by [[Hungary|Hungarian]], [[Czech republic|Czech]], [[Jewish]], [[Italy|Italian]] and Bavarian cuisines, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. The Austrian Cuisine is therefore one of the most multi and transcultural cuisines in Europe.

Typical Austrian dishes include [[Wiener Schnitzel]], [[Schweinsbraten]], [[Kaiserschmarren]], [[Knödel]], [[Sachertorte]] and [[Tafelspitz]]. There are also Kasnockn, a macaroni dish with fresh Pinzgauer cheese and parsley, and Eierschwammerl ([[Cantharellus|chanterelle]]) dishes. The Eierschwammerl are the native yellow, tan mushrooms. These mushrooms are delicious, especially when in a thick Austrian soup, or on regular meals.

The candy [[PEZ]] was invented in Austria. Austria is also famous for its [[Apfelstrudel]].

===Sports===
[[Image:STANTON2.jpg|right|thumb|Skiing slopes at [[Sankt Anton am Arlberg]]]]
The most popular sport in Austria is [[alpine skiing]] and Austria shows constant dominance in the Nations-Cup. Similar sports such as [[snowboarding]] or [[ski-jumping]] are also widely popular.
The most popular team sport in Austria is [[Association football|football]]. However, Austria rarely has international success in this discipline, though the [[2008 UEFA European Football Championship]] is jointly being held with Switzerland. Besides football, Austria also has professional national leagues for most major team sports including [[Austrian Hockey League|ice hockey]] and [[basketball]].

==See also==
{{columns |width=23.5em
| col1 =
* [[Area codes in Austria]]
* [[Austrian colonial policy]]
* [[Austrian folk dance]]
* [[Austrian German]]
* [[Austrians]]
* [[Cuisine of Austria]]
* [[Education in Austria]]
* [[Federal Investigation Bureau (Austria)]]
* [[Foreign relations of Austria]]
* [[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)|Austrian euro commemorative coins]]
| col2 =
* [[Geography of Austria]]
* [[List of cities and towns in Austria]]
* [[Media in Austria]]
* [[Military of Austria]]
* [[Pfadfinder und Pfadfinderinnen Österreichs]]
* [[Postage stamps and postal history of Austria]]
* [[Telecommunications in Austria]]
* [[Tourism in Austria]]
* [[Transport in Austria]]
}}

==Notes and References==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{cite book
|title=The Austrians: A thousand-year odyssey
|last=Brook-Shepherd
|first=Gordon
|date=1997
|publisher=Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, Inc.; 19 West 21st Street; New York, NY 10010
|isbn=0-7867-0520-5
}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/au.html CIA World Factbook—Austria]. Retrieved on December 7, 2007.

* {{cite book
|title=Introducing Austria: A short history
|last=Lonnie Johnson
|publisher=Ariadne Press, 270 Goins Court, Riverside, CA 92507
|date=1989
|isbn=0-929497-03-1
}}

* {{cite book
|title=Modern Austria
|last=Jelavich
|first=Barbara
|date=1987
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-31625-1
}}

* {{cite book
|title=States, Nations and Nationalism
|last=Schulze
|first=Hagen
|date=1994
|publisher=Blackwell Publishers Inc, 350 Main Street, Malden, Massachusetts 02148, USA
}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Austria}}
* [http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Europe/Austria-INDUSTRY.html Austrian Industry information.]
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.whenyouarein.com/europe/austria.html Travel tips Austria]
* [http://www.europe-on-line.Eu/Austria.html Connections Europe to Austria]
* [http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en ''aeiou Encyclopedia'' homepage]
* [http://www.austrians.at/ Austrians Yesterday and Today]
* [http://www.austria.info/ Austria.info] Official homepage of the Austrian National Tourist Office
* [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Austria:_Primary_Documents History of Austria: Primary Documents]
* [http://www.bundeskanzleramt.at/DesktopDefault.aspx?alias=english&init&init Federal Chancellery of Austria]
* [http://www.rechtsfreund.at/law-austria.htm Austrian Law] Information on Austrian Law
* {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|au|Austria}}
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/european/austria/au.html Library of Congress] Portals on the World - Austria
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3165.htm US Department of State] Facts and Information (updated [[February 2005]])
* [http://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/ipworldwide/pdf/at.pdf World Intellectual Property Handbook: Austria]
* [http://www.austrianews.co.uk Austria News] News from Austria in English language
* [http://www.visitingaustria.com/austria-tips-entry.htm Entry Requirements to Austria]

; Photos
* [http://www.europepictures.gm/europe/austria/photos Europe Pictures - Austria]

{{Template group
| title = [[Image:Gnome-globe.svg|25lpx]]&nbsp;Geographic locale
| list =
{{States of Austria}}
{{Countries of Europe}}
<!-- Template removed per [[Wikipedia:Templates_for_deletion/Log/2008_April_7#Template:Germanic-speaking_regions_of_Europe]] -->
}}
{{Template group
| title = International membership
| list =
{{Members of the European Union (EU) }}
{{Council of Europe}}
{{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}}
}}

{{1632 place referenced}}

<!--Interwiki-->

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[[Category:Austria| ]]
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[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Austria, People of]]









{{Link FA|vi}}
<!--Other languages-->
[[af:Oostenryk]]
[[af:Oostenryk]]
[[als:Österreich]]
[[als:Österreich]]
पङ्क्ति १९५: पङ्क्ति ६२८:
[[zh-min-nan:Tang-kok]]
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{{Infobox Country|
fullcountryname= Republik Österreich<br>अष्ट्रिया गणराज्य |
image_flag= Flag of Austria.svg |
image_coa= Austria Bundesadler.svg |
image_location= Europe location AUT.png |
nationalsong= ''Land der Berge, Land am Strome'' <br/> ''हिमालहरुको देश, नदी छेउको देश'' |
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countrycapital= [[भीन]] |
countrylargestcity= भीन |
areatotal= ८३,८५८ किमि<sup>२</sup> |
arearank= ११२औं |
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areawaterpercent= n/a |
establishedin= [[जुलाई]] २७, [[१९५५]] |
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'''अष्ट्रिया''' ([[जर्मन भाषा|जर्मन]]: '''Österreich''') [[मध्य युरोप]]को एक देश हो । यसका वरिपरि [[जर्मनी]], [[चेक गणराज्य]], [[स्लोभाकिया]], [[हङ्गेरी]], [[स्लोभेनिया]], [[इटाली]], [[स्विजरल्याण्ड]], र [[लिख्तेन्स्टाइन]] हरू छन। यसलाई आधिकारिक रुपमा "अष्ट्रिया गणराज्य" भनिन्छ । यो [[१९९५]] देखि [[युरोपेली सङ्घ]]को सदस्य राष्ट्र हो । अष्ट्रियाको राजधानी भिन हो । भिनलाई अङ्ग्रेजीमा भियना भन्छन्। यहाँ नौ सङ्घिय राज्यहरू छन्। फोरार्लबयर्ग, टिरोल, साल्ट्सबेर्ग, केर्नटेन, स्टायरमार्क, माथिल्लो अष्ट्रिया, तल्लो अष्ट्रिया, भिन र बुरगेनलान्ड । जर्मन भाषामा अष्ट्रियालाई अस्टरराइश भनिन्छ । अष्ट्रिया [[भुल्फगाङ आमादेउस मोट्सार्ट]] र [[योहान स्ट्राउस]] को जन्मस्थान हो, [[सिग्मुण्ड फ्रोइड]] र [[लुड्भिग भान बेटहोभन]] जस्ता अरू धेरै प्रशिद्ध व्यक्तिहरू अष्ट्रियामा बसोबास गर्दथे ।

अष्ट्रियाका प्रशिद्ध व्यक्तिहरू:

[[हेर्मन मायर]]<br>
[[आर्नोल्ड श्वार्ट्सनेगर]]<br>
[[फाल्को]]

२०:०२, २० मे २००८ जस्तै गरी पुनरावलोकन

ढाँचा:FixHTML

Republic of Austria
Republik Österreich
Austriaको झन्डा
झन्डा
Austriaको प्रतीकचिह्न
प्रतीकचिह्न
राष्ट्रिय गान: Land der Berge, Land am Strome  (German)
Land of Mountains, Land on the River
 अस्ट्रिया-अवस्थिति (dark green) – Europe-এ (light green & dark grey) – the European Union-এ (light green)  –  [व्याख्या]
 अस्ट्रिया-अवस्थिति (dark green)

– Europe-এ (light green & dark grey)
– the European Union-এ (light green)  –  [व्याख्या]

राजधानीVienna
सबैभन्दा ठुलो सहरcapital
आधिकारिक भाषाहरूGerman
locally also Hungarian, Slovenian and Croatian
रैथाने(हरू)Austrian
सरकारFederal Parliamentary republic
• President
Heinz Fischer
Alfred Gusenbauer
Independence
• Austrian State Treaty in force

July 27 1955
October 26 1955 (before: Austrian Empire: 1804, First Austrian Republic: 1918)
क्षेत्रफल
• जम्मा
८३,८७२ किमी (३२,३८३ वर्ग माइल) (115th)
• पानी (%)
1.7
जनसङ्ख्या
• 2007 अनुमानित
8,316,487 (93rd)
• 2001 जनगणना
8,032,926
• घनत्व
९९ /किमी2 (२५६.४ /वर्ग माइल) (99th)
कुल ग्राहस्थ उत्पादन (क्रय शक्ति समता)2006 लगत
• जम्मा
$279.5 billion (34th)
• प्रति व्यक्ति
$36,000 (8th)
कुल ग्राहस्थ उत्पादन (साङ्केतिक)2005 लगत
• जम्मा
$307.07 billion (23rd)
• प्रति व्यक्ति
$37,117 (12th)
गिनी (2000)29.1
न्यून
मानव विकास सूचकाङ्क (2005)वृद्धि 0.948
त्रुटि: अमान्य एचडिआई मान · 15th
मुद्राeuro () ² (EUR)
समय क्षेत्रअन्तर्राष्ट्रिय प्रमाणिक समय+1 (CET)
• ग्रीष्मकालीन (दिवाप्रकाश समय बचत)
अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय प्रमाणिक समय+2 (CEST)
टेलिफोन कोड43
इन्टरनेट डोमेन.at ³
  1. Slovenian, Croatian, Hungarian are officially recognised regional languages and Austrian Sign Language is a protected minority language throughout the country.
  2. Before 1999: Austrian Schilling.
  3. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.

ढाँचा:FixHTML Austria (जर्मनेली: Österreich) (Österreich), officially the Republic of Austria (जर्मनेली: Republik Österreich) (Republik Österreich), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It borders both Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The capital is the city of Vienna on the Danube River.[१]

The origins of modern Austria date back to the ninth century, when the territory of Upper and Lower Austria became increasingly populated. The name "Ostarrichi" is first documented in an official document from 996. Since then this word has developed into the Österreich.[२]

Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states[३] and is one of six European countries that have declared permanent neutrality[४] and one of the few countries that includes the concept of everlasting neutrality in its constitution. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955[५] and joined the European Union in 1995.[६]

Etymology

The German name Österreich is derived from Old German Ostarrîchi "East Kingdom".[७] The name was Latinized as "Austria", thus it has no direct etymological connection with the name of Australia, which derives from Latin Australis meaning The South (however, both words ultimately derive from Proto-Indo-European *aust- "dawn"). Reich can also mean "empire," and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the Austrian/Austro-Hungarian Empire, Holy Roman Empire, although not in the context of the modern Republic of Österreich. The term probably originates in a vernacular translation of the Medieval Latin name for the region: Marchia orientalis, which translates as "eastern marches" or "eastern borderland", as it was situated at the eastern edge of the Holy Roman Empire, that was also mirrored in the name Ostmark, for a short period applied after the Anschluss to Germany. However, Friedrich Heer, one the most important Austrian historians in the 20th century, stated in his book Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität (The Struggle Over Austrian Identity), that the Germanic form ostarrîchi was not a translation of the Latin word, but both resulted from a much older term originating in the Celtic languages of ancient Austria: More than 2,500 years ago, the major part of the actual country was called Norig by the Celtic population (Hallstatt culture); No- or Nor- meant East or Eastern, whereas Rig is the related to the modern German Reich; realm (among other things). Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean ostarrîchi and Österreich, thus Austria. The Celtic name was eventually Latinized to noricum, when the Romans conquered and Romanized the country that later became Austria. The name of Noricum was then used to designate the Roman province.[तथ्य वांछित]

The current official designation is the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich).[८] It was originally known after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1918 as the Republic of German Austria (Republik Deutschösterreich) , but the state was forced to change its name to "Republic of Austria" in 1919 by the Treaty of Saint-Germain. The name was changed again during the Austro-fascist regime (1934–1938) , into Federal State of Austria (Bundesstaat Österreich) , but restored after regaining independence and the birth of the Second Austrian Republic (1955–present).

During the period of monarchy, Austria was known as the Austrian Empire (Kaisertum Österreich) ; however no official designation existed since the empire was strongly multiethnic. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the empire became known as Austria-Hungary reflecting the dual monarchy character.

History

Prehistory and the Middle Ages

Coats of arms of the Habsburg Emperor

Settled in prehistoric times,[९] the central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes. The Celtic kingdom of Noricum was claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province. After the fall of the Roman Empire, of which most of Austria was part (all parts south of the Danube), the area was invaded by Bavarians, Slavs and Avars.[१०] Charlemagne conquered the area in 788 and encouraged colonization and Christianity.[१०] As part of Eastern Francia, the core areas that now encompass Austria were bequeathed to the house of Babenberg. The area was known as the marchia Orientalis and was given to Leopold of Babenberg in 976.[११]

The first record showing the name Austria is from 996 where it is written as Ostarrîchi, referring to the territory of the Babenberg March.[११] The term Ostmark is not historically ascertained and appears to be a translation of marchia orientalis that came up only much later.

The following centuries were characterized by the settlement of the country. In 1156 the Privilegium Minus elevated Austria to the status of a duchy. In 1192, the Babenbergs also acquired the Duchy of Styria.

With the death of Frederick II in 1246, the line of the Babenbergers went extinct.[१२] Otakar II of Bohemia effectively controlled the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia after that.[१२] His reign came to an end with his defeat at Dürnkrut at the hand of Rudolf I of Germany in 1278.[१३] Thereafter, until World War I, Austria's history was largely that of its ruling dynasty, the Habsburgs.

Rise of The Habsburgs

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria. In 1438, Duke Albert V of Austria was chosen as the successor to his father-in-law, Emperor Sigismund. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year, from then on, every emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was a Habsburg, with only one exception.

The Habsburgs began also to accumulate lands far from the Hereditary Lands. In 1477, Archduke Maximilian, only son of Emperor Frederick III, married the heiress Maria of Burgundy, thus acquiring most of the Low Countries for the family.[१४][१५] His son Philip the Fair married the heiress of Castile and Aragon, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian, African, and New World appendages for the Habsburgs.[१४][१५]

In 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, Austrian rulers expanded their territories, bringing Bohemia and the part of Hungary not occupied by the Ottomans under their rule.[१६] Ottoman expansion into Hungary led to frequent conflicts between the two powers, particularly evident in the so-called Long War of 1593 to 1606.

Austria as a European Power

The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819.

The long reign of Leopold I (1657–1705) saw the culmination of the Austrian conflict with the Turks. Following the successful defense of Vienna in 1683,[१७] a series of campaigns resulted in the return of all of Hungary to Austrian control by the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. The later part of the reign of Emperor Charles VI (1711–1740) saw Austria relinquish many of these fairly impressive gains, largely due to Charles's apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg. Charles was willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of the Pragmatic Sanction that made his daughter Maria Theresa his heir. With the rise of Prussia the Austrian–Prussian dualism began in Germany.

Map of Austria-Hungary

Austria became engaged in the war with Revolutionary France, which lasted until 1797 and at the beginning proved unsuccessful for Austria. Defeats by Napoleon meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Just two years before the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806,[१८] in 1804 the Empire of Austria was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the dual-monarchy Austria-Hungary. However, in 1814 Austria was part of the Allied forces invading France and conquering it. Following the Napoleonic wars Austria emerged from the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as one of four of the continent's dominant powers (together with Russia, Prussia and defeated France). In 1815 the German Confederation, (जर्मनेली: Deutscher Bund) was founded under the presidency of Austria. Austria and Prussia were the leading powers of the German Confederation. Its central institution was the Bundesversammlung in Frankfurt. Because of unsolved social, political and national conflicts some of the German inhabitants took part in the 1848 revolution to create a unified Germany.[१९] The Frankfurt Parliament in the St. Paul's Church elected the arch duke Johann of Habsburg as a Reichsverweser, an administrator of the German Empire. For a new German empire would have been possible three options: a Greater Germany, Großdeutschland, with the German-speaking territories of the Habsburg Empire; a Greater Austrian solution, Großösterreich, the German Confederation with the whole Habsburgian territories; and a smaller German solution, Kleindeutsche, the German Confederation without Austria at all. As Austria was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to what would become the German Empire of 1848 the parliament offered the crown to the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Austria grew out of Germany; Prussia grew in. In 1864 Austria and Prussia fought together against Denmark, to free the independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Austria and Prussia could not agree on a solution to the administration of Schleswig and Holstein, which led to the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Austria, together with most of the other German states, was defeated by Prussia in the Battle of Königgrätz in Bohemia.[१९] Austria had to leave the German Confederation and subsequently no longer took part in German politics.[२०][२१] After 1871, it was one of two Empires: the German Empire to the north and Austria-Hungary to the south.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Ausgleich, provided for a dual sovereignty, the empire of Austria and the kingdom of Hungary, under Franz Joseph I, who ruled until his death on 21 November 1916.[२२] The Austrian-Hungarian rule of this diverse empire included various Slav groups such as Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Serbs and Croats, as well as large Italian and Romanian communities. As a result, ruling Austria-Hungary became increasingly difficult in an age of emerging nationalist movements. Yet the central government tried its best to be accommodating in some respects; minorities were entitled to schools in their own language, for example.

World War I and its aftermath

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 by Gavrilo Princip (a member of the Serbian nationalist group the Black Hand)[२३] was the immediate cause for the outbreak of World War I, leading to the downfall and the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. War left the country in political chaos and economic ruin, the Central Powers (being Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany and Turkey) having been defeated in 1918. The Empire was broken up - Austria, with most of the German-speaking parts became a republic (see Treaty of Saint-Germain) and the remaining subordinate territories became independent states. However, over 3 million German Austrians found themselves living outside of the Allied inspired borders of the Austrian Republic in the nations of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Italy. A particular large German minority was found in the newly-established Czechoslovakia with the entire historic German populations of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia cut off from their motherland of Austria. Austria was also deprived of half of Tyrol, which was awarded to Italy as a prize for entering the war on the Allied side.[२४] Austria has sustained this loss to the present day and this had been a major source of friction with Italy until the 1980s. Today the situation in Alto Adige/South Tyrol is resolved, serving as a model for inter-ethnic and transnational cooperation in Europe.

Between 1918 and 1919, Austria was officially known as the Republic of German Austria (Republik Deutschösterreich). Many territories it claimed under its control included regions that were later assigned to neighboring nations. Not only did the Entente powers forbid German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name; it was therefore changed to the Republic of Austria.[२५] The monarchy was dissolved in 1919 and a parliamentary democracy was set up under the constitution of 10 November 1920.

In the autumn of 1922, Austria was granted an international loan supervised by the League of Nations.[२६] The purpose of the loan was to avert bankruptcy, stabilize the currency, and improve its general economic condition. With the granting of the loan, Austria passed from an independent state to the control exercised by the League of Nations. At the time, the real ruler of Austria became the League, through its commissioner in Vienna. The commissioner was a Dutchman not formally part of the Austrian government. Austria had fallen under an international receivership, which had not been seen openly since Lord Croner became the financial adviser to the bankrupt Khedivial Government of Egypt a little less than half a century earlier.

Austrofascism and the Third Reich

The First Austrian Republic, lasted until 1933 when Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss dissolved parliament and established an autocratic regime tending towards Italian fascism, (Austrofascism) in order, partly, to check the power of Nazis who were still advocating union with Germany.[२७][२८] The two big parties at this time —the Social Democrats and the Conservatives— had paramilitary armies, which fought each other.[२९] The "Heimwehr" (later integrated into the "Vaterländische Front") , the paramilitary arm of the Conservative party supported Dollfuss' s Fascist regime; the "Republikanischer Schutzbund", was the military arm of the Social Democrats which was outlawed in 1933 but still existed underground - civil war was to break out.[२७][२८][३०]

After the Austrian Civil War in February 1934, several members of the Schutzbund were executed,[३१] the Social Democratic party was outlawed and many of its members were imprisoned or emigrated.[३०] In May of that year the Fascists introduced a new constitution ("Maiverfassung") which cemented Dollfuss's power but on 25 July he was assassinated in a Nazi coup attempt.[३२][३३]

His successor Kurt Schuschnigg, struggled to keep Austria independent (even a restoration of the Habsburgs was contemplated), but on 12 March 1938 German troops occupied the country[३४] and established a plebiscite confirming union with Germany. Hitler was himself a native of Austria who had lost Austrian citizenship in 1925. Hitler proclaimed the annexation (Anschluss) of Austria by Germany. Austria was incorporated into the Third Reich and ceased to exist as an independent state. The Nazis called Austria "Ostmark"[३४] until 1942 when it was again renamed and called "Alpen-Donau-Reichsgaue." Some Austrians joined the resistance, but many more joined the German armed forces (Wehrmacht).

Vienna fell on 13 April 1945 during the Soviet Vienna Offensive. This was just before the total collapse of the Third Reich, the defeat of Nazi Germany, the fall of Berlin, and the end of the war in May. Karl Renner astutely set up a Provisional Government in Vienna in April with the tacit approval of the victorious Soviet forces,[३५] and declared Austria's secession from the Third Reich.

After the defeat of Germany, Allied Occupation

Much like Germany, Austria, too, was divided into a British, a French, a Soviet and an American Zone and governed by the Allied Commission for Austria.[३६] Largely owing to Karl Renner's action on April 27th in setting up a Provisional Government, however, there was a subtle difference in the treatment of Austria by the Allies.[३५] The Austrian Government was recognized and tolerated by the Four Powers. Austria, in general, was treated as though it had been originally invaded by Germany and liberated by the Allies.

Although the Eastern part of Austria, including the greater Vienna area, lay in the Soviet Zone, the capital itself was equally divided into four occupational zones. Outside of Vienna, however, travel across zone borders, in particular leaving or entering the Soviet zone, was difficult and time-consuming if possible at all. During the time of the Berlin Air Lift, Soviet military pressure was increased further, but could be successfully overcome by skillful military, political and diplomatic influence on the part of the other Allies.

On 15 May 1955 Austria regained full independence by concluding the Austrian State Treaty with the Four Occupying Powers. On 26 October 1955 Austria was declared "permanently neutral" by act of Parliament, which it remains to this day.[३७]

Recent history

The political system of the Second Republic came to be characterized by the system of Proporz, meaning that most posts of some political importance were split evenly between members of the Social Democrats (Labour Party) and the People's Party (Conservatives).[३८]

Interest group representations with mandatory membership (e.g. for workers, businesspeople, farmers etc.) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so that hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus.[३९] The Proporz and consensus systems largely held even during the years between 1966 and 1983, when there were non-coalition governments, but this era has now passed.

Austria today has five major political parties: The SPÖ (Labour Party) , the ÖVP (Conservatives) , the "Greens" (Environmental, social-liberal) and FPÖ/BZÖ (both right-wing, nationalist). SPÖ and ÖVP share about 75% of the parliamentary mandates, while the remaining 25% are divided between the other three parties.

Austria became a member of the European Union in 1995[४०] and retained its constitutional neutrality, like some other EU members, such as Sweden. The major parties SPÖ and ÖVP have contrary opinions about the future status of Austria's military neutrality: While the SPÖ supports a neutral role in the EU (together with other neutral EU members like Sweden), the ÖVP argues for stronger integration into the EU's security policy; even a future NATO is not ruled out by some ÖVP politicians. Since the "permanent neutrality" forms part of the Austrian constitution, a two-thirds majority in the Austrian parliament would be needed for such a change in policy.

Politics

Austrian Parliament in Vienna

Political system

The Parliament of Austria is located in Vienna, the nation's largest city and capital. Austria became a federal, parliamentarian, democratic republic through the Federal Constitution of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine states of the Federal Republic.[४१] The head of state is the Federal President, who is directly elected by popular vote. The chairman of the Federal Government is the Federal Chancellor, who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by vote of no confidence in the lower chamber of parliament, the Nationalrat.

The Parliament of Austria consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every five years by a general election in which every citizen over 16 years (since 2007) is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A recent extension of that term from four to five years will become effective after the next election. While there is a general threshold of 4 percent for all parties at federal elections (Nationalratswahlen) , there remains the possibility to gain a direct seat, or Direktmandat, in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the Bundesrat has a limited right of veto (the Nationalrat can — in almost all cases — ultimately pass the respective bill by voting a second time. This is referred to as 'Beharrungsbeschluss, lit. "vote of persistence"). A convention, called the Österreich -Konvent[४२] was convened in June 30, 2003 to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. However, some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented.

Recent political developments

In February 2000 the conservative People's Party formed a coalition with the controversial nationalistic Freedom Party, headed by Jörg Haider. The (at that time) 14 other member states of the European Union - but not the EU itself - condemned Austria's new coalition and froze diplomatic contacts. These measures were commonly referred to as "sanctions" although they were more or less just motions of diplomatic unfriendliness. Given the controversy, Haider chose not to join the government, but he continued to wield influence from the sidelines. This was not, however, the first time that the Republic of Austria had displeased international opinion. In 1986, the population voted for Kurt Waldheim as president despite his revelation that he had been active in the Wehrmacht as an intelligence officer during World War II.

In September 2002, the coalition between the People's Party and the Freedom Party dissolved after a shake-up in the Freedom Party. In November 2002, the People's Party made large gains in general elections again. After a lot of coalition talks with other parties, the People's Party again formed a government with the Freedom Party in February 2003 with Wolfgang Schüssel as Chancellor.

After general elections held in October 2006, the Social Democrats emerged as the largest party, whereas the People's Party lost about 8% in votes. Political realities prohibited any of the two major parties from forming a coalition with smaller parties. In January 2007 the People's Party and Social Democrats formed a Grand Coalition with the social democrat Alfred Gusenbauer as Chancellor.

Foreign policy

Embassy of Austria in London

The 1955 Austrian State Treaty ended the occupation of Austria following World War II and recognized Austria as an independent and sovereign state. In October 1955, the Federal Assembly passed a constitutional law in which "Austria declares of her own free will her perpetual neutrality." The second section of this law stated that "in all future times Austria will not join any military alliances and will not permit the establishment of any foreign military bases on her territory." Since then, Austria has shaped its foreign policy on the basis of neutrality.

Austria began to reassess its definition of neutrality following the fall of the Soviet Union, granting overflight rights for the UN-sanctioned action against Iraq in 1991, and, since 1995, contemplating participation in the EU's evolving security structure. Also in 1995, it joined the Partnership for Peace and subsequently participated in peacekeeping missions in Bosnia.

Austria attaches great importance to participation in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and other international economic organizations, and it has played an active role in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

Energy politics

In 1972, the country began construction of a nuclear-powered electricity-generation station at Zwentendorf on the River Danube, following a unanimous vote in parliament. However, in 1978, a referendum voted approximately 50.5% against nuclear power, 49.5% for,[४३] and parliament subsequently unanimously passed a law forbidding the use of nuclear power to generate electricity.

Austria currently produces more than half of its electricity by hydropower. Together with other renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass powerplants, the electricity supply from renewable energy amounts to nearly 80% of total use in Austria. The rest is produced by gas and oil powerplants.

Military

Austrian Guard Company on parade - July 14th 2007, Champs Elysées, Paris.

The manpower of the Austrian Armed Forces ("Bundesheer") mainly relies on conscription. All males who have reached the age of eighteen and are found fit get recruited for a six months long military service, which can be postponed under some circumstances. Conscientious objection is legally possible and obliges to serve an institutionalized nine months civilian service instead. Only since 1998, women can volunteer to become professional soldiers.

The main sectors of the Bundesheer are Joint Forces (Streitkräfteführungskommando, SKFüKdo) which consist of Land Forces (Landstreitkräfte) , Air Forces (Luftstreitkräfte) , International Missions (Internationale Einsätze) , and Special Forces (Spezialeinsatzkräfte) ; next to Mission Support (Kommando Einsatzunterstützung; KdoEU) and Command Support (Kommando Führungsunterstützung; KdoFüU). In 2004, Austria expends about 0.9% of its GDP for defense. The Army currently has about 45,000 soldiers, of which about half are conscripts. As head of state, Austrian President (currently Heinz Fischer) is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the Bundesheer. In practical reality, however, command of the Austrian Armed Forces is almost exclusively exercised by the Minister of Defense, currently Norbert Darabos.

With the end of the Cold War, and more importantly the removal of the former heavily guarded "Iron Curtain" separating Austria and Hungary, the Austrian military have been assisting Austrian border guards in trying to prevent border crossings by illegal immigrants. This assistance came to an end when Hungary joined the EU Schengen area in 2008, for all intents and purposes abolishing "internal" border controls between treaty states. Some politicians have called for a prolongation of this mission, but the legality of this is heavily disputed. In accordance with the Austrian constitution, armed forces may only be deployed in a limited number of cases, mainly to defend the country and aid in cases of national emergencies, such as in the wake of natural disasters etc. They may generally not be used as auxiliary police forces.

Despite, or perhaps because of, its self-declared status of permanent neutrality, Austria has a long and proud tradition of engaging in UN-led peacekeeping and other humanitarian missions. The Austrian Forces Disaster Relief Unit (AFDRU) , in particular, an all-volunteer unit with close ties to civilian specialists (rescue dog handlers, etc) enjoys a reputation as a quick (standard deployment time is 10 hours) and efficient SAR unit. Currently, larger contingents of Austrian forces are deployed in Bosnia, Kosovo and, since 1974, on the Golan Heights.

States

As a federal republic, Austria is divided into nine states (जर्मनेली: 'Bundesländer'). These states are then divided into districts (Bezirke) and cities (Statutarstädte). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (Gemeinden). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government.

ढाँचा:Austria states

Geography

Topography of Austria

Austria is a largely mountainous country due to its location in the Alps. The Central Eastern Alps, Northern Limestone Alps and Southern Limestone Alps are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84 000 km² or 32,000 sq. mi) , only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 meters (1,640 ft). The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country.

Map of Austria

Austria can be divided into five areas. The biggest area are the Austrian Alps, which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the Alps and the Carpathians account for around 12% of its area. The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian granite plateau, it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the Vienna basin comprises the remaining 4%.

Climate

The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate climate zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the Alps the alpine climate is the predominant one. In the East, in the Pannonian Plain and along the Danube valley, the climate shows continental features with less rain than the alpine areas. Although Austria is cold in the winter, in the summer temperatures can be relatively warm reaching 20-35 degrees Celsius.

The six highest mountains in Austria are:

Name Height (m) Height (ft) Range
Großglockner ३,७९७ १२,४५७ Hohe Tauern
Wildspitze ३,७६८ १२,३६२ Ötztal Alps
Weißkugel ३,७३९ १२,२६७ Ötztal Alps
Großvenediger ३,६७४ १२,०५४ Hohe Tauern
Similaun ३,६०६ ११,८३१ Ötztal Alps
Großes Wiesbachhorn ३,५७१ ११,७१५ Hohe Tauern

Economy

Modern Vienna

Austria is one of the 10 richest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita, has a well-developed social market economy, and a very high standard of living. Until the 1980s, many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised; in recent years, however, privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. Next to a highly-developed industry, international tourism is the most important part of the national economy.

Germany has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the German economy. But since Austria became a member state of the European Union it has gained closer ties to other European Union economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Growth in GDP accelerated in recent years and reached 3.3% in 2006.[४४]

Education

Responsibility for educational oversight in Austria lies partly at the Austrian states (Bundesländer), and partly with the federal government. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between the ages of three and six years. School attendance is compulsory for nine years, i.e. usually to the age of fifteen. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Austria's education as the 18th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average.[१]

Primary education lasts for four years. Alongside Germany, secondary education includes two main types of schools based on a pupil's ability as determined by grades from the primary school: the Gymnasium for the more gifted children which normally leads to the Matura which is a requirement for access to universities and the Hauptschule which prepares pupils for vocational education but also for further education (HTL = institution of higher technical education; HAK = commercial academy; HBLA = institution of higher education for economic business; etc.), where you also get the Matura.

The Austrian university system had been open to any student who passed the Matura examination until recently. A 2006 bill allowed the introduction of entrance exams for studies such as Medicine. Currently all EU students are charged a fee of about €370 per semester for all university studies. A recent OECD report criticized the Austrian education system for the low number of students attending universities and the overall low number of academics compared to other OECD countries.

Demographics

A painting by Canaletto of Vienna during the first half of the eighteenth century.

Austria's population estimate in October 2006 was 8,292,322. The population of the capital, Vienna, exceeds 1.6 million (2.2 million with suburbs) , representing about a quarter of the country's population and is known for its vast cultural offerings and high standard of living.

In contrast to the capital, other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants: the second largest city Graz is home to 250,099 inhabitants, followed by Linz (188,968), Salzburg (150,000), and Innsbruck (117,346). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants.

German-speaking Austrians, by far the country's largest group, form roughly 90% of Austria's population. The Austrian federal states of Carinthia and Styria are home to a significant indigenous Slovenian speaking minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of up to 50,000). In the east-most Bundesland, Burgenland (formerly part of the Hungarian half of Austria-Hungary) about 20,000 Austrian citizens speak Hungarian and 30,000 speak Croatian. The remaining number of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former East Bloc nations. So-called guest workers (Gastarbeiter) and their descendants, as well as refugees from Yugoslav wars and other conflicts, also form an important minority group in Austria. Since 1994 the Roma-Sinti (gypsies) are an officially recognized ethnic minority in Austria.

According to census information published by Statistik Austria for the year 2001 [४५] there were a total of 710,926 foreign nationals living in Austria. Of these, 124,392 speak German as their mother tongue (presumably immigrants from Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, the Slovenes and also the South Tyrolian part of northern Italy.) The next largest populations of linguistic and ethnic groups are 240,863 foreign nationals from the former Yugoslavia (Serbian being the largest number of these at 135,376, followed by Croatian at 105,487); 123,417 Turkish nationals; 25,155 whose native tongue is English; 24,446 Albanian; 17,899 Polish; 14,699 Hungarian; 12,216 Romanian; 7,982 Arabs; 6,902 Slovenes (not including the autochthonous minority); 6,891 Slovaks; 6,707 Czech; 5,916 Persian; 5,677 Italian; 5,466 Russian; 5,213 French; 4,938 Chinese; 4,264 Spanish; 3,503 Bulgarian. The populations of the rest fall off sharply below 3,000.

The mother tongue of the population by prevalence, is German (88.6%) followed by Turkish (2.3%) , Serbian (2.2%) , Croatian (1.6%) , Hungarian (0.5%) and Bosnian (0.4%).[४६]

The official language, German, is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the country, however, belong to Austro-Bavarian groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its western-most Bundesland, Vorarlberg, which belongs to the group of Alemannic dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for Austrian German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany.

As of 2006, some of the Austrian states introduced standardised tests for new citizens, to assure their language ability, cultural knowledge and accordingly their ability to integrate into the Austrian society.[४७]

Politics concerning ethnic groups (Volksgruppenpolitik)

An estimated 13,000 to 40,000 Slovenes in the Austrian state of Carinthia (the Carinthian Slovenes) as well as Croatians (around 30,000[४८]) and Hungarians in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955.[३७] The Slovenes in the Austrian state of Styria (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27 1955 states otherwise.

The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene- and Croat-Austrians live alongside the Germanic population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases show parts of Carinthia as Slovenian cultural territory. The current governor, Jörg Haider, has made this fact a matter of public argument in autumn 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called "Windischen-Theorie"[४९] stating that the Slovenes can be split in two groups: actual Slovenes and Windische (a traditional German name for Slavs) , based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenes, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenes who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. The term Windische was applied to the latter group as a means of distinction. This theory was never generally accepted and fell out of use some decades ago.

Religion

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, also Charles I of Spain, Austrian Habsburg
ruler and one of the major figures of the Counter-Reformation.

At the end of the twentieth century, about 74% of Austria's population were registered as Roman Catholic,[५०] while about 5% considered themselves Protestants.[५०] Both these numbers have been in decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicism, which has suffered an increasing number of seceders from the church.[तथ्य वांछित] Austrian Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income —about 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which might (have) act(ed) as an incentive to leave the church.[तथ्य वांछित]

About 12% of the population declare that they have no religion.[५०] Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of Eastern Orthodox Churches and about 8,100 are Jewish.[५०] It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000 - was reduced to solely 4,000 to 5,000 after the Second World War. The influx of Eastern Europeans, especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from Turkey largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria — around 340,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities.[५०] Buddhism, which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983 has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 census).[तथ्य वांछित]

According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005,[५१]

  • 54% of Austrian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God".
  • 34% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force".
  • 8% answered that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force".

While northern and central Germany was the origin of the Reformation, Austria (and Bavaria) was the heart of the Counter-Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the absolute monarchy of Habsburg imposed a strict regime to maintain Catholicism's power and influence among Austrians.[५२][५३] The Habsburgs viewed themselves as the vanguard of Roman Catholicism and all other confessions and religions were oppressed. In 1781, Emperor Joseph II issued a Patent of Tolerance that allowed other Christian confessions a limited freedom of worship. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right in the Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich in 1867 thus paying tribute to the fact that the monarchy was home of numerous religions beside Roman Catholicism such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian Orthodox Christians (Austria neighboured the Ottoman empire for centuries) , and both Calvinist and Lutheran Protestants.

Austria continued to remain largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918, First Republic Catholic leaders such as Theodor Innitzer and Ignaz Seipel took leading positions within or close to Austria's government and increased their influence during the time of the Austrofascism —Catholicism was treated much like a state religion by Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg.[तथ्य वांछित] Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans[तथ्य वांछित] in 1938 during the Anschluss of Austria into Germany, Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of Nazism later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the Third Reich. After 1945, a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria, and religious influence on politics declined.[तथ्य वांछित]

Culture

ढाँचा:Austrians

Music

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791).

Austria's past as a European power and its cultural environment have generated a broad contribution to various forms of art, most notably among them music. Austria has been the birthplace of many famous composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. and Gustav Mahler as well as members of the Second Viennese School such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg.

Vienna has long been especially an important center of musical innovation. Eighteenth and nineteenth century composers were drawn to the city due to the patronage of the Habsburgs, and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music. Vienna's status began its rise as a cultural center in the early 1500s, and was focused around instruments including the lute. Ludwig van Beethoven spent the better part of his life in Vienna.

Austria's current national anthem was chosen after World War II to replace the traditional Austrian anthem by Joseph Haydn. The composition, which was initially attributed to Mozart, was most likely not composed by Mozart himself.

Austria has also produced one notable jazz musician, keyboardist Josef Zawinul who helped pioneer electronic influences in jazz as well as being a notable composer in his own right. Falco was an internationally acclaimed pop and rock musician.

Art and architecture

The Belvedere Palace, an example of Baroque architecture.

Among Austrian Artists and architects one can find painters Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele or Friedensreich Hundertwasser, photographer Inge Morath or architect Otto Wagner.

Science, philosophy and economics

चित्र:Sigmund Freud-loc.jpg
Sigmund Freud in 1938

Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists with international reputations. Among them are Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess and Christian Doppler, prominent scientists in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, contributions by Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger and Wolfgang Pauli to nuclear research and quantum mechanics were key to these areas' development during the 1920s and 1930s. A present-day quantum physicist is Anton Zeilinger, noted as the first scientist to demonstrate quantum teleportation.

In addition to physicists, Austria was the birthplace of two of the greatest philosophers of the twentieth century, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper. In addition to them biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel and engineers such as Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Marcus were Austrians.

A focus of Austrian science has always been medicine and psychology, starting in medieval times with Paracelsus. Eminent physicians like Theodore Billroth, Clemens von Pirquet, and Anton von Eiselsberg have built upon the achievements of the 19th century Vienna School of Medicine. Austria was home to psychologists Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Paul Watzlawick and Hans Asperger and psychiatrist Viktor Frankl.

The Austrian School of Economics, which is prominent as one of the main competitive directions for economic theory, is related to Austrian economists Joseph Schumpeter, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, and Friedrich Hayek.

Other noteworthy Austrian-born émigrés include the management thinker Peter Drucker and the 38th Governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger.

Literature

Complementing its status as a land of artists and scientists, Austria has always been a country of poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Bernhard, Franz Kafka, and Robert Musil, of poets Georg Trakl, Franz Werfel, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Adalbert Stifter, and of writer Karl Kraus.

Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Nobel prize winner Elfriede Jelinek and writer Peter Handke.

Cuisine

Austria's cuisine is derived from the cuisine of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In addition to native regional traditions, it has been influenced above all by Hungarian, Czech, Jewish, Italian and Bavarian cuisines, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. The Austrian Cuisine is therefore one of the most multi and transcultural cuisines in Europe.

Typical Austrian dishes include Wiener Schnitzel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. There are also Kasnockn, a macaroni dish with fresh Pinzgauer cheese and parsley, and Eierschwammerl (chanterelle) dishes. The Eierschwammerl are the native yellow, tan mushrooms. These mushrooms are delicious, especially when in a thick Austrian soup, or on regular meals.

The candy PEZ was invented in Austria. Austria is also famous for its Apfelstrudel.

Sports

Skiing slopes at Sankt Anton am Arlberg

The most popular sport in Austria is alpine skiing and Austria shows constant dominance in the Nations-Cup. Similar sports such as snowboarding or ski-jumping are also widely popular. The most popular team sport in Austria is football. However, Austria rarely has international success in this discipline, though the 2008 UEFA European Football Championship is jointly being held with Switzerland. Besides football, Austria also has professional national leagues for most major team sports including ice hockey and basketball.

See also





Notes and References

  1. CIA map 1
  2. Brook-Shepherd 4
  3. Lonnie Johnson 17
  4. Lonnie Johnson 155–156
  5. Jelavich 267
  6. CIA par. 1
  7. Law, Gwillim (२००६-०१-०९), "States of Austria", Statoids, अन्तिम पहुँच २००८-०४-१४ 
  8. CIA § Government
  9. Lonnie Johnson 17
  10. १०.० १०.१ Johnson 19
  11. ११.० ११.१ Johnson 20–21
  12. १२.० १२.१ Johnson 21
  13. Lonnie Johnson 23
  14. १४.० १४.१ Lonnie Johnson 25
  15. १५.० १५.१ Brook-Shepherd 11
  16. Lonnie Johnson 26
  17. Lonnie Johnson 26–28
  18. Lonnie Johnson 34
  19. १९.० १९.१ Johnson 36
  20. Lonnie Johnson 55
  21. Schulze 233
  22. Lonnie Johnson 59
  23. Johnson 52–54
  24. Brook-Shepherd 246
  25. Brook-Shepherd 245
  26. Brook-Shepherd 257-8
  27. २७.० २७.१ Lonnie Johnson 104
  28. २८.० २८.१ Brook-Shepherd 269-70
  29. Brook-Shepherd 261
  30. ३०.० ३०.१ Johnson 107
  31. Brook-Shepherd 283
  32. Lonnie Johnson 109
  33. Brook-Shepherd 292
  34. ३४.० ३४.१ Lonnie Johnson 112–3
  35. ३५.० ३५.१ Lonnie Johnson 135–6
  36. Lonnie Johnson 137
  37. ३७.० ३७.१ Lonnie Johnson 153
  38. Lonnie Johnson 139
  39. Lonnie Johnson 165
  40. Brook-Shepherd 447,449
  41. Lonnie Johnson 17, 142
  42. Willkommen beim Österreich Konvent
  43. Lonnie Johnson 168–9
  44. Real GDP Growth – Expenditure Side, provided by the Austrian National Bank (जर्मनेली)
  45. Statistik Austria, Die Bevölkerung nach Umgangssprache, Staatsangehörigkei und GeburtslandPDF (41.3 KiB) (जर्मनेली)
  46. Statistik Austria, Die Bevölkerung nach Umgangssprache, Staatsangehörigkei und Geburtsland, page 75. PDF (जर्मनेली)
  47. Requirements to become an Austrian citizen, provided by the Viennese state government (जर्मनेली)
  48. HKDC Geschichte - Frame
  49. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windischen-Theorie
  50. ५०.० ५०.१ ५०.२ ५०.३ ५०.४ "Census 2001: Population 2001 according to religious affiliation and nationality" (PDF) (Germanमा), Statistik Austria।  |accessyear= प्यारामिटर ग्रहण गरेन (सहायता); |accessmonthday= प्यारामिटर ग्रहण गरेन (सहायता)
  51. "Eurobarometer on Social Values, Science and technology 2005 - page 11", अन्तिम पहुँच २००७-०५-०५ 
  52. Lonnie Johnson 28
  53. Brook-Shepherd 16

References

  • Schulze, Hagen (१९९४), States, Nations and Nationalism, Blackwell Publishers Inc, 350 Main Street, Malden, Massachusetts 02148, USA। 

External links


Photos

ढाँचा:1632 place referenced





ढाँचा:Link FA np:अष्ट्रिया








अस्ट्रियाको झन्डा
झन्डा
मुद्रायुरो

अष्ट्रिया (जर्मन: Österreich) मध्य युरोपको एक देश हो । यसका वरिपरि जर्मनी, चेक गणराज्य, स्लोभाकिया, हङ्गेरी, स्लोभेनिया, इटाली, स्विजरल्याण्ड, र लिख्तेन्स्टाइन हरू छन। यसलाई आधिकारिक रुपमा "अष्ट्रिया गणराज्य" भनिन्छ । यो १९९५ देखि युरोपेली सङ्घको सदस्य राष्ट्र हो । अष्ट्रियाको राजधानी भिन हो । भिनलाई अङ्ग्रेजीमा भियना भन्छन्। यहाँ नौ सङ्घिय राज्यहरू छन्। फोरार्लबयर्ग, टिरोल, साल्ट्सबेर्ग, केर्नटेन, स्टायरमार्क, माथिल्लो अष्ट्रिया, तल्लो अष्ट्रिया, भिन र बुरगेनलान्ड । जर्मन भाषामा अष्ट्रियालाई अस्टरराइश भनिन्छ । अष्ट्रिया भुल्फगाङ आमादेउस मोट्सार्टयोहान स्ट्राउस को जन्मस्थान हो, सिग्मुण्ड फ्रोइडलुड्भिग भान बेटहोभन जस्ता अरू धेरै प्रशिद्ध व्यक्तिहरू अष्ट्रियामा बसोबास गर्दथे ।

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